Technical Trends and Social Movements in gaming history

Indie Game Development (Social movement) :

In the present day, Indie games are more popular than ever before, with thousands of titles available from different developers.

An Indie game refers to a game developed without the aid of a publisher and generally of developers.
What sets apart Indie games from AAA games is the freedom to pursue an idea which might not be deemed to be successful by AAA publishers. This uniqueness and difference in game price is very attractive to consumers. Below we can see an example of an indie game called "Hotline Miami" by "Devolver Entertainment" released in 2012. This game had a very good reception by the gaming community. It was a short game, but was very fun and unique. It went so well that the developers release a sequel "Hotline Miami 2: Wrong number"  in 2014 which features a more in depth story and is much longer than the first.

Reference:
The Rise Of Indie Games - A Quick Look Into The Genre And History | Technology X. 2015. The Rise Of Indie Games - A Quick Look Into The Genre And History | Technology X. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.technologyx.com/featured/rise-indie-games-quick-look-genre-history/. [Accessed 01 April 2015].



True 3D Graphics (technical trend):

In the 1990's 3D graphics started being used in consoles due to the face that by that time, consoles became more powerful and were able to handle 3D objects well. As time went by, new and more powerful consoles were released, like the Sony PlayStation 2 which featured the "Emotion Engine" which enabled the 3D characters to express better emotions. At that time it was clear that 3D games were the way to go for most developers. At this time we are able to see how most AAA developers opt for true 3D graphics in their games. Even the popular "Street Fighter" franchise switched from 2D to 3D as seen below.



Reference:

2D vs 3D --- Which is Better? | ScrewAttack.com. 2015. 2D vs 3D --- Which is Better? | ScrewAttack.com. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.screwattack.com/news/2d-vs-3d-which-better. [Accessed 23 May 2015].

Basic Computer and Technical Terms

CPU: Central Processing Unit:

The CPU is often referred to as the "brain of the computer". It is responsible for the interpretation and execution of commands from the hardware and software present in a computer or console system.
Two typical components of the CPU are the Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) which performs calculations and the Control unit (CU) which provides and executes instructions.



RAM: Random Access Memory:

RAM is a type of memory which is accessed by a computer randomly. There are two types of RAM:

DRAM : Dynamic Random Access Memory
SRAM: Static Random Access Memory

The difference between these two is that SRAM is faster and more expensive than DRAM.
RAM is also known to be volatile memory, which means that when power is cut off, the RAM loses all data saved on it.

Pixel Resolution :

A pixel is a the smallest element of an image. The resolution of the image dictates how many pixels can fit on a specified screen. The higher the pixel resolution, the higher the picture quality. Resolution can be defined as a set of two numbers. The first number the width of the picture , or the pixels across columns , and the second number is height of the picture , or the pixels across its width.


Vector Graphics:

Vector based graphics are not made up of pixels. Instead, they are made up of paths with start and end points. The paths can have curves, angles and points as well. Due to the fact that vector graphics do not use pixels, the image quality is not affected by resolution and can be scaled up with no loss in quality.


Buffer:

A buffer contains data that is stored for a short amount of time. This is usually found in RAM, Hard drives and graphics cards. For example: Before a picture is sent on the screen directly it goes in the buffer instead to avoid frames skips or tears in a video.


True 3D graphics:

True 3D graphics are game objects or characters which are made up of polygons and can be manipulated in a 3D environment which use of specialized software such as "Autodesk Maya 2015". In a game using true 3D graphics, the 3D models are rendered in real time (during gameplay) and can be pre rendered to be more detailed (in cut scenes).

GPU:

Graphics processing unit. This is the processor which is responsible for calculations which have anything to do with graphics.

Poly count:

This refers to the amount of polygons which make up a 3D asset. The higher the poly count, the more detail the asset will have, but it will be harder to process.

Quadrangualtion:

To quadrangulate refers to changing the geometry of a 3D model to faces (polygons) which have 4 sides only.

Triangulation:

To triangulate refers to changing the geometry of a 3D model to faces (polygons) which have 3 sides only.

Shading:

Shading refers to applying a darker color to an object (2d or 3d) to show the viewer that there is a light source affecting it.

Normal mapping:

This is a technique used in 3D modelling in which a normal map is extracted from a high poly model and then applied on the same low poly model to provide the illusion of detail.

Raster image:

This is a 2 dimensional image or picture which is resolution dependent and made up of pixels. Very commonly used for photo realistic graphics.

HDMI:

High definition multimedia interface: This is an interface which supports high definition video and multi channel audio transfer at once. HDMI is commonly used with consoles, dvd/blu ray players and other high definition devices or sound systems.

Occlusion:

Occlusion is often used in 3D modelling and refers to the effect that light has when objects and surfaces touch each other. Occlusion darkens significantly the point where different objects touch.

Colour Gradient:

The colour gradient refers to the transition between two different colours. For example the gradient between black and white is from dark grey to light grey.

Stereoscopic 3D:

This can be either active or passive depending on the screen being used. Stereo 3D enables the viewer or player to experience depth in the images or video being watched. This is done by showing each eye slightly different images through special 3D glasses to provide a 3 dimensional experience.

GUI:

Graphical User Interface. This refers to how the user of a device interacts with its applications with different visuals. GUI often include icons like the GUI on the windows operating system.

DLC:

Downloadable content. This is common for video games nowadays. DLC is extra content released for a game which can be purchased and downloaded to be used along with the original game.

Encryption:

Encryption is the process of protection data from unauthorized access by transforming such data into unrecognizable data until it reaches its destination.

FPS:

Frames per second. Used in video and refers to how many images are shown in a single second of video playback. The higher the fps, the smoother the video.

Bit:

Stands for "Binary digit". It is the smallest measurement of data. Contains a single value which is either 0 or 1.


References:

What is Central Processing Unit (CPU)? Webopedia. 2015. What is Central Processing Unit (CPU)? Webopedia. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/CPU.html. [Accessed 07 March 2015].
What is Random Access Memory (RAM)? Webopedia. 2015. What is Random Access Memory (RAM)? Webopedia. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/R/RAM.html. [Accessed 07 March 2015].
Pixel Resolution. 2015. Pixel Resolution. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.tutorialspoint.com/dip/Pixel_Resolution.htm. [Accessed 07 March 2015].
 Vector Graphic Definition. 2015. Vector Graphic Definition. [ONLINE] Available at: http://techterms.com/definition/vectorgraphic. [Accessed 07 March 2015].
Buffer Definition. 2015. Buffer Definition. [ONLINE] Available at: http://techterms.com/definition/buffer. [Accessed 08 March 2015].
Key 3D Modeling Terminology You Need to Master. 2015. Key 3D Modeling Terminology You Need to Master. [ONLINE] Available at:http://blog.digitaltutors.com/basic-3d-modeling-terminology/. [Accessed 17 May 2015].
The Tech Terms Computer Dictionary. 2015. The Tech Terms Computer Dictionary. [ONLINE] Available at: http://techterms.com/. [Accessed 23 May 2015].

Retro Games Evaluation

1st Generation game:

"Hockey" for the Magnavox Odyssey

Visually limited to black and white colour.
Two player game in which each player controls two lines with paddle controllers and tries to score on the opponents side. Movement was only up and down.

Although the game was very basic, it was an extremely challenging game especially due to the competition between players.

Reference:

Benjamin Esh. (1977). Benjamin Esh. [Online Video]. 30 June 2008. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wMhuysQIrzE. [Accessed: 07 March 2015].

2nd Generation game:

 "Task Force" for the Atari 2600

Compared to the previous generation, this game has much more colours and a higher resolution.
The game is played alone (single player). The player controls the cross hair on screen to target and fire upon the gangsters with the use of the eight way directional controller with button. The game also presented some movement from the characters on screen as animation.

Reference:


Highretrogamelord. (1978). Task Force for the Atari 2600 . [Online Video]. 29 July 2010. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hC-djsxhoCk. [Accessed: 07 March 2015].


3rd Generation game:


"Action Fighter" for the Sega Master System 1986

 
This game is a vertical scrolling game in which the player has to drive along obstacles and shoot at other vehicles to power up. Gameplay takes place on land (street) and in the air. The game featured a timer which when hit zero, its game over. The game allowed the player to enter his/her name before each attempt. The game also saved the high score for each attempt (until the master system is turned off). 

Unlike previous generations, gameplay is not limited to a static screen. In this game, the background (play area) is constantly moving downwards to move the character forward.

Reference:


Action Fighter - Sega Retro. 2015. Action Fighter - Sega Retro. [ONLINE] Available at: http://segaretro.org/Action_Fighter. [Accessed 10 May 2015].



4th Generation game:


"Altered Beast" for the Sega Mega Drive 1988


"Altered beast" is an action side scrolling game in which the player controls a warrior which is tasked with retrieving the daughter of Zeus who has been captured by an evil wizard. The player could dispatch enemy by hitting them with punched and kicks. Enemies dropped "orbs" which when collected will visually increase the muscle mass of the character. When three orbs are picked up, the character transforms into a beast (depending on the level played). While in beast form, the character is stronger and able to face the level boss.

This game featured distinct different levels with different beasts. Compared to previous generations, the 2D sprites have much more detail.

Reference:

Altered Beast - Sega Retro. 2015. Altered Beast - Sega Retro. [ONLINE] Available at: http://segaretro.org/Altered_Beast. [Accessed 10 May 2015].


5th Generation game:

"Klonoa: Door to Phantomile" for the Sony PlayStation 1998



This game is an action - adventure 2.5D side-scroller.  It utilises true 3D graphics for the buildings, platforms and characters whilst 2D graphics are used for trees flowers etc. In this game, you control the main character (Klonoa) which with the help of his friend has to kidnappers of their town's songstress.
The player can move left or right and can jump. Klonoa can also zap enemies with his ring and use them as projectiles or boost his jumping distance. This game has many colourful and diverse levels and enemies along with tricky boss fights. It also gets increasingly challenging as the player progresses.

reference:

Klonoa: Door to Phantomile Review - GameSpot. 2015. Klonoa: Door to Phantomile Review - GameSpot. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.gamespot.com/reviews/klonoa-review/1900-2545986/. [Accessed 13 May 2015].



6th generation game:

"Shadow of the Colossus" for the Sony PlayStation 2 2005




Shadow of the Colossus is an 3rd person action adventure game which utilises true 3D graphics. In this game, you control a boy named Wander and you have to search this vast forbidden land with your horse until you find a colossus. The horse riding simulation of this game is very good. You can really feel the horse's response to the controls.
Each colossus requires a different tactic to destroy. The majority of the colossi are gigantic compared to you and you will need to climb on top of them and hit their weak spot. A deep sense of solitude is conveyed through this game. This is due to the minimalistic environments and the use of subtle ambient music.

reference:

Shadow of the Colossus Review - IGN. 2015. Shadow of the Colossus Review - IGN. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.ign.com/articles/2005/10/17/shadow-of-the-colossus-review. [Accessed 17 May 2015].

7th generation game:

"Killer is Dead" for the Sony PlayStation 3 2013


"Killer is Dead" is a third person action game developed by "Grasshopper Manufacture" and "Kadokawa Games". This game uses 3D filled graphics with a cell shaded style to make it look like an anime or comic Japanese comic. In this game the player controls an assassin named "Mondo Zappa" who is appointed execution missions which will pit the player against many enemies. The gameplay is very fast paced and the player will be able to use quick sword attacks, heavy arm attacks and will also be able to use the gun attachment on his arm to shoot at enemies as well. The different levels in the game vary considerably and will keep the player interested and on edge until the end.
This game is considered by critics to be very strange and over the top and to be a spiritual successor to the game Killer 7 (PS2).

references:

. 2015. . [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.loveandkill.com/uk/world/introduction.html. [Accessed 23 May 2015].
Killer Is Dead for PlayStation 3 Reviews - Metacritic. 2015. Killer Is Dead for PlayStation 3 Reviews - Metacritic. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.metacritic.com/game/playstation-3/killer-is-dead. [Accessed 23 May 2015].


8th generation game:

"Killzone: Shadow fall" for the Sony PlayStation 4 2013



"Killzone: Shadow Fall" is a first person shooter (FPS) which put the player in the shoes of Marshal Lucas Kellen. The game is set in an alternate future where a humanoid alien race called the "Helghast" want to live on earth as well and so there is conflict between humans and helghast. This game attempts to be as realistic looking as possible along with very good physics as well. The player makes also use of the touch screen present on the DualShock4 to instruct the "OWL" (a small flying robot assistant" to perform specific actions. The in built speaker of the controller is also used when the player listens to an audio log in game. The graphics in this game a stunning and the game maintains a very smooth 60fps frame rate.

reference:

Killzone: Shadow Fall Review - IGN. 2015. Killzone: Shadow Fall Review - IGN. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.ign.com/articles/2013/11/13/killzone-shadow-fall-review. [Accessed 24 May 2015].

Major Gaming Devices in the Generations of Gaming:

1st Generation: (1972 - 1977)

Magnavox Odyssey

The Odyssey started off as a prototype in 1967 known as "brown box" by Ralph Baer (also known as the father of video games). In 1969, Baer tried to obtain a license agreement with various television companies. The agreement was signed by Magnavox. Then on January 27th 1972, the first home console was released as the Magnavox Odyssey priced at around 100 dollars. The Odyssey was advertised by the company to work only on Magnavox television sets as to increase TV sales. Over its 3 year life span, it only sold 200,000 units.

Technical specifications: The system contained no processor or memory.It was made up of transistors, capacitors and resistors. The system used cards to provide it with settings for the game to be played. All the games were variations of "pong" which used a "ball and paddle" mechanism first release by Atari. The games were played by two players with one controller each which have a dial.

According to the different game played, plastic overlays would be attached on the television set to provide a coloured scene for the game. The actual display was a black screen with white boxes which formed the "ball and paddle". The Odyssey originally came with six games and a 36 page manual for the other 12 games offered for the system. The total number of games released on this system were 28.

References:

Magnavox Odyssey | Video Game Console Library. 2015. Magnavox Odyssey | Video Game Console Library. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.videogameconsolelibrary.com/pg70-odyssey.htm#page=reviews. [Accessed 07 March 2015].
Odyssye history. 2015. Odyssye history. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.magnavox-odyssey.com/Odyssey%20history.htm. [Accessed 07 March 2015].
A History of Home Video Game Consoles | First Generation: 1972-1977 | InformIT. 2015. A History of Home Video Game Consoles | First Generation: 1972-1977 | InformIT. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=378141. [Accessed 07 March 2015].




2nd Generation: (1976 - 1984)

Atari 2600

The Atari 2600 was first released on September 11, 1977 by Atari as the Atari VCS (Video Computer System) with nine games. The 2600 featured a new control system using an eight way controller stick with one button. Until the release of the "NES" in 1984, The 2600 was the best selling console of all time with 80% of the market share and over 400 games released for it. Atari and its 2600 were very popular until the video game crash in 1983. This was due to mismanagement and the release of the much hyped video game called E.T.: The Extra Terrestrial which proved to be a failure.

On the Atari 2600, the programmer had to individually program each line being drawn on screen. On each line, there could only be six objects: a "playfield", two "players", one "ball" and two "missiles". The names of the objects were only internal names. The "missile" does not need to be an actual missile.

Technical specs:
TIA 1A - Television Interface Adaptor Model 1A (Video, Audio, Input Ports) (Collision control system)
CPU 6507 - 8bit, 1.19MHz
RAM: 128 Bytes
Resolution: 160x192 pixels (NTSC 60Hz), 160x228 pixels (PAL 50Hz)
Colors: 4 colors at once (one color per object)
Palette: 128 colors (NTSC), 104 colors (PAL)




References:

Atari 2600 Specifications. 2015. Atari 2600 Specifications. [ONLINE] Available at: http://problemkaputt.de/2k6specs.htm. [Accessed 07 March 2015].
Inside the Atari 2600 | Hardware Secrets. 2015. Inside the Atari 2600 | Hardware Secrets. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.hardwaresecrets.com/article/Inside-the-Atari-2600/1552/3. [Accessed 07 March 2015].
AtariAge - Atari 2600 History. 2015. AtariAge - Atari 2600 History. [ONLINE] Available at: https://atariage.com/2600/. [Accessed 07 March 2015].

Generations of video games - Sega Retro. 2015. Generations of video games - Sega Retro. [ONLINE] Available at: http://segaretro.org/Generations_of_video_games#First_generation. [Accessed 07 March 2015].


  
3rd Generation: (1983 - 1992)

Sega Master System

 
The "Sega Master System" or "SMS" was released in 1986 by "Sega". The SMS was a cartridge-based system and uses an 8-bit processor. The SMS joy pad is called the "Master System Control Pad" which utilizes a D-pad (with thumb stick) on the left side, and 2 buttons on the right. Button "1" also functioned as the "Start" button. To pause a game on the system, the user would have to press the pause button which is found on the console itself. A direct competitor of this console was the "NES" by "Nintendo". The SMS wasn't as popular as the NES in Japan, but it outsold the NES in Europe and South America. The SMS sold over 14.8 million units worldwide and is know to be the second best console in this generation (3rd generation). 

This console supports 8x8 or 8x16 sprites and supports horizontal, diagonal, vertical and partial screen scrolling.

Technical Specifications:

CPU: 8-bit Zilog Z80 3.54 MHz processor
RAM: 8KB
Graphics: VDP (Video Display Processor) 
Video RAM: 16KB
Colours: up to 32 simultaneous colours (from a palette of 64 colours)
Resolution:  256x192 and 256x224
Sound: (PSG) Texas Instruments SN76489  which supports 4 channel mono sound and has 3 sound generators.

References:

Sega Master System - Sega Retro. 2015. Sega Master System - Sega Retro. [ONLINE] Available at: http://segaretro.org/Sega_Master_System. [Accessed 10 May 2015].
Control Pad (Master System) - Sega Retro. 2015. Control Pad (Master System) - Sega Retro. [ONLINE] Available at: http://segaretro.org/Control_Pad_%28Master_System%29. [Accessed 10 May 2015].
Generations of video games - Sega Retro. 2015. Generations of video games - Sega Retro. [ONLINE] Available at: http://segaretro.org/Generations_of_video_games. [Accessed 10 May 2015].



 4th Generation: (1987 - 1996)

 Sega Mega Drive / Sega Genesis




The "Sega Mega Drive" (called Sega Genesis in America) is a console released by "Sega" in 1988. The Mega Drive was a direct competitor of Nintendo's "NES" and "Super Nintendo Entertainment System" (or SNES). The mega drive was Sega's most successful console with more than 40 million units sold worldwide and over a thousand games released for it. The Mega drive featured a newly designed controller which had a more ergonomic design and featured a new button (C). This console uses a 16-bit processor which enabled game developers to provide more realistic graphics than ever before.

As years went by, an array of addons were released for this system the Sega Mega Dive including the "Sega Mega CD" which enabled the user to play games which were on CD's instead of cartridges.

Due to its popularity, game collections are being released on the latest consoles as well like the PS3.



Technical Specifications:

CPU:16-bit Motorola 68000 7.67MHz
RAM: 64KB
Graphics: "VDP" - "Video Display Processor". Features four graphic layers.
Resolution: 320x224, 256x224
Colours:  512 colours total. Able to display up to 61 colours simultaneously.
VRAM: 64KB
Sound CPU: Zilog Z80 3.58 MHz, Yamaha YM2612 clocked at 68000 clock speed (6 channel audio)
Inputs: 2 male DE-9 controller ports and one female DE-9 expansion port


References:

Sega Mega-CD - Sega Retro. 2015. Sega Mega-CD - Sega Retro. [ONLINE] Available at: http://segaretro.org/Sega_Mega-CD. [Accessed 10 May 2015].
Sega Mega Drive - Sega Retro. 2015. Sega Mega Drive - Sega Retro. [ONLINE] Available at: http://segaretro.org/Sega_Mega_Drive#Technical_Specifications. [Accessed 10 May 2015].
Generations of video games - Sega Retro. 2015. Generations of video games - Sega Retro. [ONLINE] Available at: http://segaretro.org/Generations_of_video_games. [Accessed 10 May 2015].


5th Generation: (1993 - 2002)

Sony PlayStation / PSOne 

 
The "PlayStation" (PS) was first released in 1994 by "Sony" in Japan. The PlayStation did very well in Japan and in the US. Unlike previous generations, CD's were used. This allowed for more storage space and CD audio. Games were also easier to develop for the PS when compared to its competitors (Sega Saturn). 

Initially the controller for the PS was made up of 4 shoulder (back) buttons, a d-pad, start and select, and 4 action buttons. Later, Sony release a new controller which featured two thumb sticks (analog sticks) and a vibration function (called "DUALshock") which gave players hepatic feedback. Later in 1999, Sony released a smaller and more economic version of the PS called PSOne. Players were also able to "save" there progress in games by utilizing a proprietary memory card which holds 15 "blocks".



In 1991, PS was going to be an addon for the SNES, but the agreement didn't succeed.
In this generation, a large number of games true 3D graphics (with polygons) were being developed. This was possible due to the higher technical specifications of the console. The graphical capabilities of the PS include: 2D rotation, scaling, transparency and fading and 3D texture mapping and shading. Apart from playing games, the PS could also be used as an Audio CD player.


Technical specifications:

CPU: 32 bit RISC processor 33.9 MHz
RAM: 2MB
Graphics: 3D Geometry Engine
VRAM: 1MB
Colours: 16.7 million
Sprites: 4000 simultaneously 
Polygons: 360000 per second
Resolution: 640x480

references:


Sony PlayStation 1st-gen specs - Engadget. 2015. Sony PlayStation 1st-gen specs - Engadget. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.engadget.com/products/sony/playstation/1st-gen/specs/. [Accessed 13 May 2015].
Sony Playstation (History, Specs, Pictures). 2015. Sony Playstation (History, Specs, Pictures). [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.cyberiapc.com/vgg/sony_ps.htm. [Accessed 13 May 2015].
 Generations of video games - Sega Retro. 2015. Generations of video games - Sega Retro. [ONLINE] Available at: http://segaretro.org/Generations_of_video_games. [Accessed 13 May 2015].


6th Generation: (1998 - 2006)

Sony PlayStation 2 / PS2



The "PlayStation 2" (PS2) was first released in 1999 by "Sony" in Japan. This was Sony's second console and was capable of millions of polygons per second which made game more life like than ever before. This console also featured the "Emotion Engine", thus enabling game characters to better react to player interaction and have more emotion. The PS2 now also used DVDs (and CDs) which allowed for much more storage than the CD. The PS2 also featured backward compatibility with its predecessor, the PlayStation 1. The PS2 can also be used as a CD and DVD player to listen to music or watch movies respectively. The controller used on the PS2 is the DualShock2 which is very similar to the DualShock controller of the PSone. The PS2 also featured the same saving system as the PSone which is memory cards although PS2 memory card hold 8MB compared to 1MB of the PSone. It is important to note that the PlayStation 2 is currently the best selling home console of all time having sold over 155 million units worldwide.

The PS2 also featured a LAN port for internet connection. Games could also support online multiplayer.


The PS2 also featured two USB ports which could be used to attach various accessories such as the "Eye toy" camera which can be used to play games with your body.



Technical specifications:

CPU: 128 bit "Emotion Engine" at 300MHz
RAM: 32MB direct RAMBUS (memory bus bandwidth 3.2 GB per second)
Co-Processor: FPU (Floating Point Accumulator, Floating Point Divider)
Vector Units: VU0 and VU1
Graphics: "Graphic Synthesizer" at 150MHz (max polygon rate: 75 million polygons per second)
VRAM: 4MB (bandwidth 48GB per second)
Resolution: SD and HD up to 480p (1080i for certain games)
Sound: "SPU2 + CPU" 48 channel (sample frequency: 44.1KHz or 48KHz)

References:

Sony PlayStation 2/PSTwo (PS2) Console Information. 2015. Sony PlayStation 2/PSTwo (PS2) Console Information. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.consoledatabase.com/consoleinfo/sonyplaystation2/. [Accessed 17 May 2015].
Generations of video games - Sega Retro. 2015. Generations of video games - Sega Retro. [ONLINE] Available at: http://segaretro.org/Generations_of_video_games#Fifth_generation. [Accessed 17 May 2015].



7th Generation: (2005 - ongoing)

Sony PlayStation 3 / PS3

   The "PlayStation 3" was first released by "Sony" in 2006. This was Sony's third home console following the PS2. Games for this system were being produced on Blu ray disks. This means that the games could be much larger and more complex than the games on previous generation consoles. Apart from playing games, the PS3 system had a graphical user interface called the XrossMediaBar (XMB).

Through the XMB, the user could set up various settings for the system and playback music, videos and pictures. The PS3 also featured the new DUALshock3 "sixaxis" wireless controller. The configuration for the buttons on the Dualshock3 is the same as the DUALshock2 with some small differences. The two trigger buttons (L2 and R2) where now pressure sensitive and a new button was introduced in the middle of the controller called the "PS button". The controller also has the "sixaxis" feature which enables the player to perform actions in game by moving the controller in a particular manner (depending on the game).

 With the PS3, Sony also started the PlayStation Network (PSN) which is used by players to communicate and play together online. Along with the PSN, there was the PlayStation Store which was used to to purchase games and download them directly to the PS3 system. The PS3 featured a Hard disk Drive for storage. With an HDD, games could be installed on the system and media could also be stored on the system. The HDD also removed the need for external memory cards as the saved data is stored in the system.Till now the PS3 has seen three physical revisions as seen below:


Games for the PS3 featured high definition realistic graphics with stereoscopic 3D capability, but developers found it difficult to develop due to the new "Cell" processor architecture.

Technical Specifications:

CPU: Cell Processor 3.2GHz (512KB L2 Cache) 8 cores total (1 is left for redundancy)
RAM: 256MB XDR 3.2Ghz
GPU: Nvidia RSX 550Mhz (1.8 TFLOPS floating point performance) (full HD x2 channel)
VRAM: 256MB GDDR3 700MHz
Resolution: 480i, 480p, 720p, 1080i, 1080p
Ports: HDMI, USB, Ethernet, AV multi out, optical
Sound: RCA stereo, HDMI, Optical (5.1 surround support)
Optical media: DVD-video, CD, Blu ray, PlayStation format disk, PlayStation 2 format disk (only on initial systems), PlayStation 3 format disks.

References:

Sony PlayStation 3 specs - Engadget. 2015. Sony PlayStation 3 specs - Engadget. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.engadget.com/products/sony/playstation/3/specs/. [Accessed 23 May 2015].
PS3 features | Unleash essential entertainment | PlayStation. 2015. PS3 features | Unleash essential entertainment | PlayStation. [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.playstation.com/en-gb/explore/ps3/features/. [Accessed 23 May 2015].


8th Generation: (2012 - ongoing)

Sony PlayStation 4 / PS4

 
The "PlayStation 4" was first released by "Sony" in 2013. This is Sony's fourth home console following the PS3. Like its predecessor, games come on blu ray discs which provide ample space for games. Sony decided to use a x86/64 AMD processor instead of using the "Cell" processor technology found in the PS3. This new processor makes it easier to develop for than the "Cell" processor. The PS4 features a new controller (DualShock4) which resembles the DualShock3, but has some key improvements. The controller is now generally more ergonomic and features a share button which allows the player to take a screen shot or save a video of their game play.  The controller also features a touch pad in the middle of the controller which can have various uses in a game. The controller also has an in built speaker and a headset can be directly connected to it as well.


The PS4 aslo features a new GUI called "PlayStation dynamic interface" which is similar to the XMB on the PS3, but has more focus on the games and applications installed.



The PS4 allowed players to combine their PlayStation account with other social networking accounts to be able to stream or send video game play to each other. The PS4 also features a cross game voice chat system to be able to communicate with your friends even when playing different games.


Technical specifications:

CPU: AMD x86 "Jaguar" 8-core processor (with a weaker secondary CPU for background processes)
GPU: AMD next-gen Radeon based engine with 18 compute units (1.8 TFLOPS)
RAM: 8GB GDDR5 (Shared by CPU and GPU. Shared bandwidth of 176GB/sec)
Resolution: 720p, 1080i, 1080p, (4k for video and pictures)
Ports: USB 3.0, HDMI, Optical
Media: Blu-ray, DVD
Storage: HDD

References:

Playstation 4 Specs Guide . 2015. Playstation 4 Specs Guide . [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.ps4playstation4.com/Expected-PS4-Specs. [Accessed 24 May 2015].

Pascal's Clock

 

Pascal's Calculator or Pascaline is a calculating device which was created by Blaise Pascal at the age of 18 in 1642. The device was mainly used for additions of numbers and could also be used for subtractions (by addition with the use of nine complements), multiplication and division (by repeated addition and subtraction).

The calculator is 36 cm long, 13 cm wide and 8 cm high with a metal surface and it was compact enough to carry. The device was operated by turning the appropriate metal dials. Numbers were displayed in eight windows in the top of the device. The numbers are written on drums. Each drum has two rows of numbers. When performing a calculation, one row would be covered by a slat which then could be moved down on the inputted number to allow the user to input the second number to compute.

Each wheel of the top of Pascaline has one axle that has one horizontal crown type gear. The gear is transmitting the rotation of the wheel to a vertical crown type gear. That gear is attached to an horizontal axle that has two additional crown-type gears. One that is the main gear and the third gear that is a little smaller than the other two and it is linking the base axle to the the numbered drums. The three gears are in a row from the front to the back. . The mechanism also included a weighted ratchet between the main gears that pushes the next in the row gear whenever there is a carry from the previous gear. This mechanism is shown below:

Pascal attempted to mass produce this device, but wasn't very successful due to high cost in production (gears had to be hand crafted). A large number of these devices still exist in the present day.